Mesopotamia


 * Mesopotamia **
 * Chapter 2 **

Roughly parallel with the civilization of Egypt, another historic culture was developing in the region of the Near East known as Mesopotamia. This area is modern day Iraq. The name Mesopotamia comes from the Greek, meaning “the land between the rivers”. People began to settle this region around 7,000 B.C. and establish towns. Over the course of centuries, each town grew into what is known as a city-state: a kingdom that only consists of a single city. Each city state had its own culture, but they shared several things: religion, written language, art and architecture. With time several Mesopotamian cultures flourished between the two rivers of the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers. Each town was dominated by a central temple. This temple controlled much of the economic activity- shops and offices were grouped around it. The temple usually consisted of a series of superimposed solid structures forming a broad based tower or artificial mountain known as a ziggurat. These were made of mud brick, which has eroded with time. The most famous of these is the Tower of Babel in Babylon.

** Sumer ** The kingdom of Sumer was established in Mesopotamia by 5,000 B.C. Their kingdom consisted of several cities. The Sumerians have been credited with creating the first written language. The people of Sumer, like the other nations of Mesopotamia, had ziggurats. The earliest of the Sumerian ziggurats to survive is at Uruk, on the banks of the Euphrates, in southern Mesopotamia. It was built between 3500 and 3000 B.C. and was dedicated to the sky god, Anu. It is older than any known Egyptian monument.

Another innovation of the ancient Sumerians is the Cylinder seal. Cylinder seals have been unearthed in great numbers at sites throughout Mesopotamia. Generally made of stone- the favorite materials were carnelian, jasper, lapis lazuli and agate- seals of ivory, glass, and other materials also survive. As the name implies, the seals were cylindrical. Most have a hole drilled through the center of the cylinder so that they could be strung and worn around the neck or suspended from the wrist. Cylinder seals were prized possessions, signifying high position in society, and they were frequently buried with the dead.

Their primary function, however, was not to serve as jewelry. With this device, the Sumerians (and later Mesopotamian people) sealed and identified their documents and protected storage jars and doors against unauthorized opening. The oldest seals were found with some of the world’s earliest written records and served to ratify the accuracy of administrative accounts. Seals and writing developed together in ancient Sumer. Some seals, in fact, bear long cuneiform inscriptions and record the names and titles of rulers, bureaucrats, and deities. Although sealing is increasingly rare, the tradition lives on today whenever a letter is sealed with a lump of wax and then stamped with a monogram or other identifying mark. Customs officials still stamp packages and sacks with official stamps when goods cross national borders.

In the ancient Near East, cylinder seals were decorated with incised designs producing a raised pattern when the seal was rolled over soft clay. See the illustration at the bottom of the page. Continuous rolling of over a clay strip results in a repeating design.

The miniature reliefs the seals produce are a priceless source of information about Mesopotamian religion and society. Without them, archeologists would know much less about how Mesopotamians lived, worked, fought wars, and worshiped. Clay seal impressions excavated in architectural contexts clue us into administration and government. They also provide art historians with knowledge of Mesopotamian relief sculpture spread out over three thousand years. ** Akkad ** The history of Mesopotamia is marked with constant warfare. It is a relatively flat land, with no natural barriers to protect it. Therefore, it was constantly under attack from outside and from hostile nations within. The Sumerians were conquered around 2,300 B.C. from neighboring Akkad. Their king, Sargon I, ruled for 56 years. His dynasty, (family who continued to rule after him) lasted for the reign of five kings. They aspired to conquer the world, and in fact controlled much of the Middle East, from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Not much is known about the Akkadians, and few of their artifacts have been retrieved. This bronze head is one example of their fine craftsmanship.  ** Babylon ** Hammurabi led his nation of Babylon to dominance of the region around 1,900 B.C. His major contribution was a single legal system, known as the Code of Hammurabi. Up till then, every city and town had their own laws. What was legal in one area, might be illegal somewhere else. Also laws were often unwritten, left up to the whim of the king. Hammurabi’s code was significant because it was written and it was public. It was carved into a basalt (a hard black stone) column, for all to read. The top of the column (shown above, right) shows Hammurabi receiving the Law from Shamash, the sun god. Writing in Mesopotamia was taught in schools. It was accomplished by means of pressing the sharpened end of a reed into clay tablets to make cuneiform marks. Cuneiform means “wedge-shaped”. Tablets have been found with everything from epics, stories and legends to court documents and receipts. The tablets, which have been found by the thousands in Mesopotamia, allow us to reconstruct how these people lived their lives to the smallest detail. In the welter of warring people- including the Elamites, Kassites, and others- who disputed with each other for the succession of Babylonian power, a single warlike nation called the Assyrians, after their original home at Ashur on the Tigris River in northern Mesopotamia, was both skilled and ruthless enough to gain power over the entire region. They ascended to power in 900 B.C. with the conquests of Assurnasurpal. The Assyrians were one of the most feared and hated of all ancient conquerors. They brutalized captives, moving them from their homelands to distant parts of the empire. Their sculptures show them fighting battles that they always win, cheerfully burning cities, dismantling the fortifications and massacring the inhabitants. Statues that exist independent of any architectural frame or setting and that viewers can walk around are //freestanding// sculptures, or sculptures “in the round”, whether the piece was carved or cast. In relief sculptures, the subjects project from the background but remain a part of it. In //high relief// sculpture, the images project boldly. In some cases, the relief is so high that not only do the forms cast shadows on the background, but some parts are actually in the round. In //low relief//, or //bas-relief//, the projection is only slight. The Assyrians worked only in bas-relief, never, in high-relief. This was not done until the Greeks several centuries later. Relief sculpture, like sculpture in the round, can be produced either by casting or carving. Artists also can make reliefs by hammering a sheet of metal from behind, pushing the subject out from the background in a technique called //repousse//. The Assyrians were the first to create scenes in relief sculpture. The Egyptians soon followed. At the palaces of Nimrod and Nineveh, emissaries could approach the king only through a succession of halls lines with continuous reliefs intended to overwhelm the visitor with the power of the king, his intimacy with gods and his conquests. Often scenes such as hunting or battles were depicted to show the power and virility of the king. Courage, power, and strength are the themes depicted in these wall sized sculptures. These scenes were meant to intimidate visiting dignitaries from other nations into believing that the kings and gods of Mesopotamia were superior to their own. Frequently, these sculptures were painted to increase their beauty and effect. Many other nations adopted this form of art from the Assyrians and the Egyptians. The Persians, Greeks, and Romans all have used relief sculpture to decorate buildings, boldly proclaiming great national deeds, mythology, beliefs and ideals. The practice continues today. Many buildings to this day, often in the greco-roman style, are decorated with relief sculpture to express abstract ideas and concepts, such as liberty, equality and justice.
 * Assyria **

 ** Neo-Babylon or Chaldea ** The collapse of Assyria in 612 B.C. brought about by the invasions of the Scythians from the east and the Medes from the north. Order was restored to the region by Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from Babylon. This city never lost its cultural importance, even during the reign of the Assyrians. The kings of Babylon went to great lengths to beautify the city; this they did in part by building the Hanging Gardens, one of the wonders of the ancient world. They also built massive gated into the city, such as the one at the right. The blue glazed tiles were meant to awe visitors, as blue was meant to symbolize heaven. The glory of Babylon was short lived, as it quickly fell to various empires: the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the Byzantines, back to the Persians and finally to the Muslim Arabs.

Questions

 * 1) What civilization grew up around the time as the ancient Mesopotamian?
 * 2) Where is Mesopotamia? (What modern-day countries?)
 * 3) What does Mesopotamia mean?
 * 4) What societies were found in ancient Mesopotamia? Give 5 answers.
 * 5) What is a ziggurat?
 * 6) What do we know about the Sumerians?
 * 7) Who followed the Sumerians?
 * 8) What do we know about them?
 * 9) Who was the first ruler to unite Mesopotamia?
 * 10) What nation did he belong to?
 * 11) What was their script (writing) called?
 * 12) How did they write?
 * 13)  Who were the Assyrians?
 * 14) What were they like?
 * 15) What was their art like?
 * 16) Who overthrew the Assyrians? Give the name of the ruler and his nation.
 * 17) What was his major architectural achievement?
 * 18) What great nation was heavily influenced by Mesopotamian art/culture?
 * 19) What were they like?
 * 20) What was their art like?