Middle+Ages

The Middle Ages Chapter 7 Art historians classify Medieval art into major periods and movements. They are Celtic art, Early Christian art , Migration Period art , Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art , Gothic art , Byzantine art and Islamic art. In addition each "nation" or culture in the Middle Ages had its own distinct artistic style and these are looked at individually, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Viking art. Medieval art was of many crafts, such as mosaics and sculpture ; and there were many unique genres of art, such as Crusade art or animal style.
 * Medieval art** covers a vast scope of time and place, over 1000 years of art history in Europe, the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Middle East and North Africa. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the artists crafts, and the artists themselves.

Overview
Medieval artists in Europe depended, in varying degrees, upon artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and upon the legacy of the early <span class="wiki_link_ext">Christian church. These sources were mixed with the vigorous "Barbarian" artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce a remarkable artistic legacy. Indeed the history of medieval art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian and "pagan" art.

Major art movements
Art in the Middle Ages is a broad subject and art historians traditionally look at it based on about nine large-scale movements, or periods. = Illuminated manuscripts = An **illuminated manuscript** is a <span class="wiki_link_ext">manuscript in which the <span class="wiki_link_ext">text is supplemented by the addition of decoration or illustration, such as decorated <span class="wiki_link_ext">initials, borders and <span class="wiki_link_ext">miniatures. In the strictest definition of the term, an illuminated manuscript only refers to manuscripts decorated with gold or silver. However, in both common usage and modern scholarship, the term is now used to refer to any decorated manuscript. The earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600 AD, primarily produced in <span class="wiki_link_ext">Ireland, <span class="wiki_link_ext">Italy and other locations on the European continent. The meaning of these works lies not only in their inherent art history value, but in the maintenance of a link of literacy. Had it not been for the (mostly <span class="wiki_link_ext">monastic ) scribes of late <span class="wiki_link_ext">antiquity, the entire content of western heritage literature from <span class="wiki_link_ext">Greece and <span class="wiki_link_ext">Rome could have perished. The very existence of illuminated manuscripts as a way of given stature and commemoration to ancient documents may have been largely responsible for their preservation in an era when <span class="wiki_link_ext">barbarian hordes had overrun continental <span class="wiki_link_ext">Europe. The majority of surviving manuscripts are from the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Middle Ages, although many illuminated manuscripts survive from the 15th century <span class="wiki_link_ext">Renaissance , along with a very limited number from late <span class="wiki_link_ext">antiquity. The majority of these manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially from <span class="wiki_link_ext">13th century onward, an increasing number of secular texts were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as <span class="wiki_link_ext">codices, although many illuminated manuscripts were rolls or single sheets. A very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on <span class="wiki_link_ext">papyrus. Most medieval manuscripts illuminated or not, were written on <span class="wiki_link_ext">parchment (most commonly calf, sheep, or goat skin) or <span class="wiki_link_ext">vellum (calf skin). Beginning in the late middle ages manuscripts began to be produced on <span class="wiki_link_ext">paper. Illuminated manuscripts are the most common item to survive from the middle ages. They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval <span class="wiki_link_ext">painting. Indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of painting.
 * **<span class="wiki_link_ext">Early Christian art ** covers the period from about 200 (before which no distinct Christian form survives), until the late 7th or early 8th centuries, when <span class="wiki_link_ext">Arab conquests and Byzantine <span class="wiki_link_ext">iconoclasm halted the production of art in the East. During this period Christian artists adopted the Roman crafts of painting, mosaic, carving and metalwork.
 * **<span class="wiki_link_ext">Byzantine art ** overlaps with or merges with what we call Early Christian art until the iconoclasm period of 730-843 when the vast majority of artwork was destroyed; so little remains that today any discovery sheds new understanding. After 843 until <span class="wiki_link_ext">1453 there is a clear Byzantine art tradition. It was often called the best art of the Middle Ages in terms of quality of material and workmanship, the production of which was centered on <span class="wiki_link_ext">Constantinople . Byzantine arts crowning achievement were the monumental frescos and mosaics inside domed churches, most of which have not survived due to natural disasters and the re-appropriation of churches to <span class="wiki_link_ext">mosques.
 * **<span class="wiki_link_ext">Celtic art ** in the Middle Ages describes the art of native <span class="wiki_link_ext">Celtic speaking peoples of Ireland and Britain from about the 5th century, with the Roman withdrawal, to about the 12th century establishment of Romanesque art. The 5th to 7th centuries were mainly a continutation of the late Iron Age <span class="wiki_link_ext">La Tène art with some Roman modifications, while in the 7th and 8th centuries saw a fusion with Germanic traditions through contact with the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Anglo-Saxons creating what is called the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Hiberno-Saxon style, and then finally late in the period some Viking inspirations were added in Ireland.
 * **Romanesque art** refers to the art of <span class="wiki_link_ext">Western Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Gothic style in the 13th century. The term was invented by 19th century art historians, especially for <span class="wiki_link_ext">Romanesque architecture, which retained many basic features of <span class="wiki_link_ext">Roman architectural style - most notably round-headed arches, but also <span class="wiki_link_ext">barrel vaults , <span class="wiki_link_ext">apses , and <span class="wiki_link_ext">acanthus -leaf decoration - but had also developed many very different characteristics. In Southern France, Iberia and Italy there was an architectural continuity with the Late Antique, but the Romanesque style was the first style to impact the whole of Catholic Europe, from Denmark to Sicily. Romanesque art was also greatly influenced by <span class="wiki_link_ext">Byzantine art.
 * **Gothic art** was a <span class="wiki_link_ext">medieval art movement that developed in France out of <span class="wiki_link_ext">Romanesque art in the mid-12th century, led by the concurrent development of <span class="wiki_link_ext">Gothic architecture . It spread to all of Western Europe, but took over art more completely north of the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Alps, never quite effacing more classical styles in Italy. Primary media in the Gothic period included <span class="wiki_link_ext">sculpture , <span class="wiki_link_ext">panel painting , <span class="wiki_link_ext">stained glass , <span class="wiki_link_ext">fresco and <span class="wiki_link_ext">illuminated manuscript.
 * <span class="wiki_link_ext">Islamic art during the Middle Ages covers a wide variety of crafts including illustrated manuscripts, textiles, ceramics, metalwork and glass. There was an early formative stage from 600-900 and the development of regional styles from 900-1500.

Techniques
Illumination was a complex and frequently costly process. As such, it was usually reserved for special books: an altar Bible, for example. Wealthy people often had richly illuminated "<span class="wiki_link_ext">books of hours " made, which set down prayers appropriate for various times in the <span class="wiki_link_ext">liturgical day.

Text
In the making of an illuminated manuscript, the text was usually written first. Sheets of <span class="wiki_link_ext">parchment or <span class="wiki_link_ext">vellum, animal hides specially prepared for writing, were cut down to the appropriate size. After the general layout of the page was planned (//eg// initial capital, borders), the page was lightly ruled with a pointed stick, and the scribe went to work with ink-pot and either sharpened <span class="wiki_link_ext">quill feather or reed pen. The script depended on local customs and tastes. The sturdy Roman letters of the early <span class="wiki_link_ext">Middle Ages gradually gave way to cursive scripts such as <span class="wiki_link_ext">Uncial and half-Uncial, especially in the <span class="wiki_link_ext">British Isles, where distinctive scripts such as <span class="wiki_link_ext">insular majuscule and <span class="wiki_link_ext">insular minuscule developed. Stocky, richly textured <span class="wiki_link_ext">black letter was first seen around the <span class="wiki_link_ext">13th century and was particularly popular in the later <span class="wiki_link_ext">Middle Ages.

Classifications
Art historians classify illuminated manuscripts into their historic periods and types, including (but not limited to): <span class="wiki_link_ext">Insular script, <span class="wiki_link_ext">Carolingian manuscripts , <span class="wiki_link_ext">Ottonian manuscripts , <span class="wiki_link_ext">Romanesque manuscripts and <span class="wiki_link_ext">Gothic manuscripts. See <span class="wiki_link_ext">Medieval art for other regions, periods and types.

Images
A <span class="wiki_link_ext">13th century manuscript illumination, the earliest known depiction of <span class="wiki_link_ext">Thomas à Becket 's assassination When the text was complete, the illustrator set to work. Complex designs were planned out beforehand, probably on wax tablets, the sketch pad of the era. The design was then traced onto the vellum (possibly with the aid of pinpricks or other markings, as in the case of the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Lindisfarne Gospels ).

Paints
The medieval artist's palette was surprisingly broad: = = =Medieval architecture=
 * **Color** |||||| **Source(s)** ||
 * **Red** |||||| Mercury(II) sulfide (HgS), often called <span class="wiki_link_ext">cinnabar or <span class="wiki_link_ext">vermilion, in its natural mineral form or synthesized; "<span class="wiki_link_ext">red lead " or <span class="wiki_link_ext">minium (Pb3O4); insect-based colors such as <span class="wiki_link_ext">cochineal ,<span class="wiki_link_ext">kermes and <span class="wiki_link_ext">lac ; <span class="wiki_link_ext">rust (<span class="wiki_link_ext">iron oxide , Fe2O3) or <span class="wiki_link_ext">iron oxide -rich earth compounds ||
 * **Yellow** |||||| Plant-based colors, such as <span class="wiki_link_ext">weld, <span class="wiki_link_ext">turmeric or <span class="wiki_link_ext">saffron ; yellow earth colors (<span class="wiki_link_ext">ochre ); <span class="wiki_link_ext">orpiment (arsenic sulfide, As2S3) ||
 * **Green** |||||| Plant-based compounds such as <span class="wiki_link_ext">buckthorn berries; <span class="wiki_link_ext">copper compounds such as <span class="wiki_link_ext">verdigris and <span class="wiki_link_ext">malachite ||
 * **Blue** |||||| <span class="wiki_link_ext">Ultramarine (made from the mineral <span class="wiki_link_ext">lapis lazuli ); <span class="wiki_link_ext">azurite ; <span class="wiki_link_ext">smalt ; plant-based substances such as <span class="wiki_link_ext">woad, <span class="wiki_link_ext">indigo , and folium or turnsole ||
 * **White** |||||| <span class="wiki_link_ext">Lead white (also called "flake white", basic lead carbonate (PbCO3)); <span class="wiki_link_ext">chalk ||
 * **Black** |||||| <span class="wiki_link_ext">Carbon, from sources such as <span class="wiki_link_ext">lampblack , <span class="wiki_link_ext">charcoal , or burnt bones or <span class="wiki_link_ext">ivory ; <span class="wiki_link_ext">sepia ; <span class="wiki_link_ext">iron gall ||
 * **Gold** |||||| <span class="wiki_link_ext">Gold, in leaf form (hammered extremely thin) or powdered and bound in <span class="wiki_link_ext">gum arabic or egg (called "shell gold") ||
 * **Silver** |||||| <span class="wiki_link_ext">Silver, either silver leaf or powdered, as with gold; <span class="wiki_link_ext">tin leaf ||
 * Medieval architecture** is a term used to represent various forms of <span class="wiki_link_ext">architecture popular in the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Middle Ages.

Religious architecture
The <span class="wiki_link_ext">Latin cross plan, common in medieval ecclesiastical architecture, takes the Roman <span class="wiki_link_ext">Basilica as its primary model with subsequent developments. It consists of a <span class="wiki_link_ext">nave, <span class="wiki_link_ext">transepts , and the <span class="wiki_link_ext">altar stands at the east end (see //<span class="wiki_link_ext">Cathedral diagram //). Also, <span class="wiki_link_ext">cathedrals influenced or commissioned by <span class="wiki_link_ext">Justinian employed the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Byzantine style of domes and a <span class="wiki_link_ext">Greek cross (resembling a plus sign), centering attention on the altar at the //center// of the church. Architecture in the Early Middle Ages may be divided into <span class="wiki_link_ext">Early Christian, <span class="wiki_link_ext">Merovingian , <span class="wiki_link_ext">Carolingian , and <span class="wiki_link_ext">Ottonian. While these terms are problematic, they nonetheless serve adequately as entries into the era. Considerations that enter into histories of each period include <span class="wiki_link_ext">Trachtenberg 's "historicising" and "modernizing" elements, Italian versus northern, Spanish, and Byzantine elements, and especially the religious and political maneuverings between kings, popes, and various ecclesiastic officials.

Romanesque
Romanesque, prevalent in medieval Europe during the 11th and 12th centuries, was the first pan-European style since <span class="wiki_link_ext">Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent. The term was not contemporary with the art it describes but rather is an invention of modern scholarship based on its similarity to Roman Architecture in forms and materials. Romanesque is characterized by a use of round or slightly pointed arches, barrel vaults, cruciform piers supporting vaults, and groin vaults.

Gothic
In the 12th century <span class="wiki_link_ext">Abbot Suger introduced the //<span class="wiki_link_ext">flying buttress //, which proved a great innovation in supporting buildings. Beams came out and down from the building, resting much of the weight on the ground outside. The walls could then become thinner and have larger windows. The windows installed contained beautiful <span class="wiki_link_ext">stained glass, showing stories from the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Bible and from lives of <span class="wiki_link_ext">saints. The //<span class="wiki_link_ext">pointed arch // provides another trademark of the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Gothic style. Such new elements of design allowed cathedrals to rise taller than ever, and it became something of an inter-regional contest to build a church as high as possible.

Secular architecture
Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense. <span class="wiki_link_ext">Castles and <span class="wiki_link_ext">fortified walls provide the most notable remaining non-religious examples of medieval architecture. Windows gained a cross-shape for more than decorative purposes: they provided a perfect fit for a <span class="wiki_link_ext">crossbowman to safely shoot at invaders from inside. <span class="wiki_link_ext">Crenelated walls (<span class="wiki_link_ext">battlements ) provided shelters for archers on the roofs to hide behind when not shooting. ** Stained Glass ** The origins of the first stained glass windows are lost in history. The technique probably came from jewelry making, cloisonné and mosaics. Stained glass windows as we know them, seemed to arise when substantial church building began. By the 10th century, depictions of Christ and biblical scenes were found in French and German churches and decorative designs found in England. There is a mystery to glass: It is a form of matter with gas, liquid and solid state properties. Glass is most like a super-cooled liquid. It captures light and glows from within. It is a jewel like substance made from the most ordinary materials: sand transformed by fire. Before recorded history, man learned to make glass and color it by adding metallic salts and oxides. These minerals within the glass capture specific portions from the spectrum of white light allowing the human eye to see various colors. Gold produces stunning cranberry, cobalt makes blues; silver creates yellows and golds while copper makes greens and brick red. Techniques of stained glass window construction were described by the monk Theophilus who wrote a how to for craftsmen about 1100 AD. It describes methods little changed over 900 years: "if you want to assemble simple windows, first mark out the dimensions of their length and breadth on a wooden board, then draw scroll work or anything else that pleases you, and select colors that are to be put in. Cut the glass and fit the pieces together with the grozing iron. Enclose them with lead cames..... and solder on both sides. Surround it with a wooden frame strengthened with mails and set it up in the place where you wish." The Gothic age produced the great cathedrals of Europe and brought a full flowering of stained glass windows. Churches became taller and lighter, walls thinned and stained glass was used to fill the increasingly larger openings in them. Stained glass became the sun filled world outside. Abbot Suger of the Abbey of St. Denis rebuilt his church in what is one of the first examples of the Gothic style. He brought in craftsmen to make the glass and kept a journal of what was done. He truly believed that the presence of beautiful objects would lift men's’ souls closer to God. Stained glass windows are often viewed as translucent pictures. Gothic stained glass windows are a complex mosaic of bits of colored glass joined with lead into an intricate pattern illustrating biblical stories and saints lives. Viewed from the ground, they appear not as a picture but as a network of black lines and colored light. Medieval man experienced a window more than he read it. It made the church that special, sacred dwelling place of an all powerful God. We see medieval craftsmen were more interested in illustrating and idea than creating natural or realistic images. Rich, jewel colors played off milky, dull neutrals. Paint work was often crude and unsophisticated: dark brown enamel, called grisaille, was matted to the glass surface to delineate features, not to control the transmission of light. In the 15th century, the apex of high Gothic, the way stained glass was viewed changed. It became more a picture and less an atmosphere. Paler colors admitted more light and figures were larger, often filling the entire window. Paint work became more sophisticated, more like easel painting. The rediscovery of silver stain allowed the artist to realistically depict yellow hair and golden garments. Stained glass artists became glass painters as the form became closer and closer to panel painting. Lead lines that were once accepted as a necessary and decorative element became structural evils to be camouflaged by the design. The Renaissance brought the art of stained glass into a 300 year period where windows were white glass heavily painted. They lost all their previous glory and it seemed the original symbolism and innate beauty of stained glass was forgotten. In this period, stained glass became a fashionable addition to residences, public buildings and churches. Heraldic glass showing detailed shields and coats of arms on simple, transparent backgrounds was common. Much of what stained glass was became forgotten. The 18th century saw the removal of many medieval stained glass windows. They were destroyed as hopelessly old fashioned and replaced by painted glass.

Middle Ages questions Chapter 7


 * 1) Where and when do the Middle Ages take place?
 * 2) Medieval art was a combination of what three styles?
 * 3) What were some of the major art movements of the Middle Ages?
 * 4) What is an illuminated manuscript?
 * 5) What was the subject matter of most of these manuscripts?
 * 6) What were they written on? Where does this material come from?
 * 7) What is a book of hours?
 * 8) How were these manuscripts made? Describe the process.
 * 9) What are some of the differences between Romanesque and Gothic architecture?
 * 10) What were the two types of architecture created in this era?
 * 11) What is glass? Describe its properties.
 * 12) Why were stained glass windows created? What was their purpose?